Shortly after wolves were taken from the federal endangered species list, at least three were taken this weekend by Wyoming residents. According to Wyoming officials, all three of the confirmed kills came in the newly designated predator zone for wolves. Inside that zone, the animals can be shot on sight without limits, as long as the time, location and sex of the kill is reported to the Game and Fish Department within ten days.

On Friday, after the wolves were removed from the endangered species list, they fell under the control of the Wyoming Game and Fish Department. Under their guidelines, wolves in the state’s extreme northwest corner fall in the state’s trophy game zone and are afforded some protection. Outside that area, however, wolves are considered predators similar to coyotes.

A number of wildlife groups, including Defenders of Wildlife, have notified the federal government of their intent to sue over the wolf delisting, once a requisite sixty-day waiting period is up at the end of April. The groups have not ruled out seeking an emergency injunction under the Endangered Species Act to have the declaration voided.

Meanwhile, the Mississippi House of Representatives has passed a bill allowing hunting of deer over grain or other baits. Critics say it takes the sport out of hunting; others say it simply provides an additional way to help control the state’s growing deer population. While critics say it’s unethical, Mississippi House Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks Chairman Bo Taylor offered this solution: “It’s all about ethics. If you feel it’s unethical, then don’t do it.”

Under the bill, food must be placed in feeders or spin feeders.

The Idaho Game and Fish Department is offering a simple explanation for the deaths of 200,000 Chinook salmon smolts scheduled for release into the Lochsa River last Friday. The explanation? Cold weather and human error. Water flows to an acclimation pond were interrupted when a valve on an intake pipe froze. Hatchery attendants didn’t notice the valve.

In New Jersey, Governor Jon Corzine’s proposed budget cuts are going to be closing nine state parks and cut services at three others. Assemblywoman Alison Littell McHose, representing Sussex, Morris and Hunterdon, noted – correctly – that the majority of the parks set for closure are in Republican areas of the state. Corzine, as you know if you’ve read much about the continued battles between Corzine, the Department of Environmental Protection and conservationists, is a Democrat.

“It couldn’t be more clearer,” McHose says,“First he said he plans on eliminating the state’s Agriculture Department, which is one of the most efficiently run departments we have, and now he intends on closing down our state parks. How interesting that most of them are located in primarily Republican territory.

“New Jersey parks are not the cause of our state budget problems,” McHose, a member of the Assembly Budget Committee, continued, “a self-serving governor who is clearly out of touch with our residents is.”

She also called the governor a hypocrite for going after an entity that actually benefits the state’s economy. “These parks attract millions of recreational visitors and tourists each year that are a much needed boost to the state’s economy and the economies of the regions surrounding these parks,” she explained. “Mr. Corzine should spend his time battling the real problem – excessive government spending, waste and abuse – and not targeting our resources that actually benefit the state. He should take a long, hard look at the waste in so many of our school districts and the abuse in the state’s New Jersey Family Care program.”

Maybe so, but if history is any guide, Corzine will pretty much do what he wants as the director of the Environmental Protection agency has proven to be more interested in protecting her job than the environment.

So what’s new, right?

It may not be good news, but…we’ll keep you posted.

The fact is the moon does have an influence on the earth and its life forms. Its overhead and underfoot positions generate the tides each day and can lift the earth’s crust a foot or so. A human baby’s time from conception to birth is exactly nine lunar months, and more of us are born during the new or full moon than any other phase. Studies have shown that when shut off from outside stimuli, namely sunlight, many creatures will adjust their daily routine to the lunar day (approximately 24 hours and 50 minutes long).

There have been numerous scientific experiments conducted on the subject, but one of the more convincing was when Dr. Frank A. Brown, a biologist at Northwestern University, had some live oysters plucked from their home off the seashore of Connecticut and flown to his lab near Chicago. Oysters are known to open their shells in tune with each high tide, and Dr. Brown wanted to see if this was due to the change in ocean levels or to a force from the moon itself. He placed the oysters in a shallow pan of water and shut them off from sunlight. For the first week, they continued to open their shells in tune with the high tides in Connecticut. But by the second week, they adjusted their shell-openings to each time the moon was overhead and underfoot Chicago. Dr. Brown theorized that this had to be a direct force from the moon, and that it was probably electromagnetic energy, which interacts with the electromagnetic fields surrounding the oysters.

It’s understandable, then, why most anglers and hunters today consult some type of moon table regularly. But there still remain general misconceptions of this mystical orb’s role in when fish and game become active. Part of the problem stems from the moon table itself, which, quite frankly, may not be as accurate, complete, or honest as it could be. Whether by accident or design, it can imply that the moon is the end-all-be-all of when to go. Just calling the moon’s overhead position “Major” strongly suggests it is to be considered the best time to go that day, regardless of what other influences may exist.

And there most certainly are other influences. True, some are difficult to predict, like the fish’s current state of health, appetite, or mind. Others, like the weather or high water, can’t be predicted by any calendar, but can be factored in when the time comes.

But there’s one other element that is not only just as predictable as the moon, it often has more to do with when fish and game become active than anything. Yet, despite this importance, you won’t find it receiving any more than lip service in any moon table.

Solar Power

Some of you more experienced anglers have been keying on the major solar periods since before Patton was a private. You’ve learned that one of the best times to go bass fishing in July, for example, is during that dawn period, when the overheated shallows are at their coolest and the fish are being stimulated by darkness suddenly turning into light. During cold months you know that the high-noon to dusk period is often the best, because now the chilly shallows are at their warmest of the day.

There is just no denying that dawn starts the bio-engine of most life on earth each day, and dusk shuts it down. Even in the case of nocturnal creatures, these two events provide the primary starting and stopping points.

Then there’s the high-noon period, when the sun is at its most direct position overhead. Besides being a half-way point between dawn and dusk (i.e.: lunch time), it’s also when the sun’s light and heat energy suddenly penetrate very deeply into the water. This can spark plankton blooms at the medium to lower depths, which induces baitfish to move and feed, and in turn can stimulate gamefish to do the same thing. Experienced anglers have found that this high-noon period is often a good time to fish deeper, and this may be why.

High-noon also sees the sun’s strongest electromagnetic energy, which theoretically is the same force coming down from the moon. This makes the sun’s underfoot position at mid-night also a viable period.

Leaving the sun out of the mix is like listening to the Super Bowl on the radio. Something is missing. Still, these solar patterns have their ups and downs, too. For no apparent reason the fish suddenly stop biting at the prescribed times, and out comes our moon table.

The Solar/Lunar Tandem

It’s almost like a tug-of-war between these two celestial objects. On the one side we have the sun, urging fish and game to follow its dawn-to-dusk-to-dawn cycle and the changes in temperatures, winds, and light levels it causes. On the other side is the maverick moon, coming overhead 50 minutes later each day, sending down enough mysterious energy to coax many species off their solar routines and onto a more erratic one. It’s hard to say if the bass and walleyes are confused. A lot of people are.

But underneath this apparent discord lies predictable patterns to the moon and sun’s influence. In fact, there are times when the two sing together in almost perfect harmony to produce potentially strong fish-feeding, game-moving periods. Not everyone knows about these, and even fewer look for them. You would need a moon table, because the lunar element in the equation is never constant from one day to the next. On the other hand, these exceptional periods are not highlighted in any moon table, because such a forecaster would have to chart the key solar cycles, as well. Yes, some tables use terms like “solunar,” implying they do incorporate the sun. But in truth there’s only one that does.

PrimeTimes

Like the better moon tables, PrimeTimes says the best lunar times occur when the moon is passing overhead, then again when its underfoot (the same configuration that causes the two high tides each day). It also agrees that in general the full, new, and half moon phases are the better days of each month. But that’s where the similarities end.

First and foremost, PrimeTimes considers the sun in all aspects of its predictions. Secondly, using scientific concepts, precise astrophysical data, and a comprehensive computer program, it analyzes every minute of every day to calculate activity patterns, then relays its information to you via easy-to-follow charts and graphs.

Best Days for Fishing and Hunting

The “Best Days of the Month” chart at the top of each PrimeTimes Wall Calendar page rates each day’s overall potential on a scale of 0 to 100 (with 100 the best and 50 being average). This is because there’s more to a “good” day than just the lunar phase. The laws of astrophysics say that the closer the moon is to the earth (its apogee/perigee cycle), the stronger its force. This becomes glaringly evident when you consider the fact that back when life was forming in the sea, the moon was five times closer to the earth than it is now, and as a result, the tides it produced were a mile high!

Also important is how directly overhead the moon comes each day, known as its “high/low cycle.” Again, physics demands that the better two objects line up (try this with two bar magnets), the more “pull” there is between their electromagnetic fields. The sun’s high/low cycle also plays a part in this. But while it takes the sun 365 days to complete its cycle (summer to winter and back to summer), the moon knocks off its high/low cycle every month.

Consequently, while a typical moon table gives equal billing to the new and full moons every month, PrimeTimes points out that these two phases rarely deserve the same rating. For example, let’s say the day of the full moon this month has a rating of 68, while the day of the new moon gets only 55. As we just said, there are number of reasons (cycles) for this, but one of the main ones will be because the new moon is occurring quite closely to a “low” (weaker) moon, while the full moon has the same proximity to the “high” moon, giving it extra power. A few months down the road the new moon will be occurring much closer to the high moon and take its turn at being the stronger of the two phases. (Actually, this game of cat-and-mouse among the different cycles can even have a half moon being stronger than the full or new moon that month.)

Best Times for Fishing and Hunting

The length of PrimeTimes’ lunar periods are in a constant state of flux, lasting anywhere from approximately one hour to 3 ½ hours, depending on those key solar and lunar cycles mentioned earlier. As a rule of thumb, the shorter periods are associated with that “low” moon, plus somewhat to apogee (when the moon is farthest away). These are the days you could expect the moon to be relatively weak, and may want to focus first on those solar periods of dawn, high-noon, or dusk…whichever that particular season calls for.

But where PrimeTimes really rises above other tables is that it alerts you to those special situations every month that, as we mentioned earlier, few people think about, much less look for. These occur whenever a lunar period overlaps a solar period, creating a double-whammy you may not want to miss. It’s more than just a doubling up of the forces that act on fish and game, it’s also sudden harmony from a previously out-of-sync rhythm, not unlike Mrs. Hayward’s sixth-grade band suddenly playing all the right notes at the right time.

For example, let’s say the moon is passing overhead in the predawn hours of 3:11 to 6:21 a.m. Theoretically, the fish in our favorite lake are being urged to feed at this time, with the strongest influence hitting them around 4:30 a.m., when the moon is at its zenith. Unfortunately, it’s still dark, so whether they answer the call is hard to say. Then, around 6:00 a.m., just as the moon’s influence is waning, dawn breaks, and the fish are again being zapped with a feeding stimulus, this time a solar one. Another tough call. Any that did feed when the moon was in force, may not at dawn, and vice versa.

Ah, but look what starts to happen two days later. Now the moon is passing overhead at dawn. For the next three days our fish are hit with these two feeding stimuli at the same time. The force is doubled and the coordination is great. Not a bad time to be on the water.

It’s very easy to see whenever these overlaps occur in PrimeTimes, because one of the lunar humps will be right on top of one of the solar humps. And if that doesn’t call your attention to the event, the fish/game symbols directly below that overlap certainly will.

As a footnote, you may find it interesting to know that the only time one of the lunar periods overlaps dawn and/or dusk is during a half-moon phase. And the only times one overlaps the high-noon (sun overhead) and/or mid-night (sun underfoot) solar periods is during the new and full moon phases. Is it coincidental that these are the same lunar phases associated with the best days to go each month?

In Closing

This PrimeTimes system is not the final word in the best times and days to go fishing and hunting. You need to keep its data in perspective, as you also consider the other, less-predictable variables each time out. But it is the best look into the future the outdoor world has to date. By basically adding an accurate “sun table” to an accurate “moon table,” then carefully analyzing the ever-changing relationship between these two celestial objects and the earth, we have an excellent indicator of the more important, predictable factors. If you’ve been following some moon table regularly, your success rate should increase substantially with PrimeTimes. If this is your first attempt with any activity calendar, you couldn’t have started at a better time.

This article generally was excerpted from Rick Taylor’s book, “How to Know When to Go (The Art and Science of Predicting the Best Times to Fish and Hunt).” To get your own copy or any of our other products, visit PrimeTimes2.com.

Every season, millions of hunters take to the woods with renewed enthusiasm and vigor. Unfortunately, many come away empty handed, returning day after day to face similar results. It’s every hunter’s biggest dilemma, but some have found the perfect solution, and that is hunting by moon phase.

Fishermen have long been aware of the powerful influence of the moon on the tides and chart the various phases of the moon in order to determine the best time to fish. Similarly, animals are in tune with their surroundings and certain shifts in natural forces trigger corresponding responses in the wild.

For years, researchers have studied the reaction of wildlife to changes in the position of the sun and moon and have come up with some rather interesting observations in relation to hunting by moon phase.

So, how does this work? How can paying attention to the phases of the moon help ensure a hunter’s success?

Animals and the Moon

Animals in the wild tend to be less active during daylight hours. Feeling safer under the cover of darkness, many animals will increase their activity as dusk falls.

However, many observers have noted that activity amongst all animals is greater when the moon is full and that this one form of hunting by moon phase — hunting during periods of full moon — can yield excellent results.

In other words, if you’re aware of the phases of the moon, you’re in a better position to anticipate the peak of animal activity. The more active they are, the better your chances will be of finding them.

Moon Phase Deer Hunting

Much of the research that has been done on this subject has involved hunting deer, and many hunters swear that hunting by moon phase is the only way to accurately predict deer activity.

But the moon doesn’t only have an impact on deer activity. The various phases of the moon also seem to have a direct effect on deer mating patterns, which in turn make them easier to locate. It’s because of this that moon phase deer hunting — as it’s becoming commonly known — is quickly gaining acceptance.

Being aware of when the breeding season begins helps to determine travel patterns and areas of increased deer activity. When the breeding season is at its peak, finding deer is easier and finding more than one in a particular area more likely.

So what does this have to do with the moon? A female deer’s reproductive cycle is influenced by the different phases of the moon, and peaks in the three or four days surrounding the second full moon after the autumnal equinox. When the does are in heat, the bucks begin rubbing and scraping in an attempt to attract them. If you know when the full moon occurs, you can be at the right spot, at the right time, and have the best chance for success, luring the bucks into your site.

By being aware of the different moon phases, deer hunting can be far more successful. But not only that, it can also help you figure out when not to hunt. You aren’t going to be successful after the deer have mated and even the phase when the bucks are chasing the does can be pretty fruitless.

By becoming familiar with these patterns and planning ahead, hunting by moon phase will almost certainly lead to your best hunting season ever.

The Pre-Rut/Rubbing Phase and Transition Phase

During September all of the deer are bulking up for the rut and winter; feeding on alfalfa, clover, green forbes, ripening soybeans and corn in some areas, and mast (acorns, beechnuts). You can put out mineral licks and deer attractants in areas where you want deer to come during the hunting season. Early in the month the bucks should be shedding velvet, and creating rubs and scrapes near late summer nighttime food sources. They may be still traveling together, and may begin sparring at this time. Later in the month both the bucks and does may move to fall home ranges.

With their testosterone levels rising the bucks are less tolerant of each other, fighting may begin, and the buck groups break up as the bucks begin to establish breeding ranges. Scout to find out where the deer currently are; watch food sources for feeding deer and sparring bucks to determine what the bucks look like. Continue clearing deer trails, and shooting lanes. Hang portable stands for the archery season and build permanent stands for the gun season.

Age and Antler Size

If you want to see more large racked bucks in your area the first thing you have to do is use a little restraint. You must let the young bucks go so they can grow. I often hear hunters complain that they see nothing but small racked bucks in their area. These hunters often wait patiently through the season for a big racked buck to appear. Then, instead of going home empty handed they end up taking a small racked buck. If this pattern continues year after year those hunters will see nothing but young, small racked bucks, because the young deer never live long enough to grow large racks.

Deer experts used to believe it took 4 years for a whitetail buck to develop a trophy rack. It is now believed that a whitetail doesn’t achieve full body size until it is about 7 years old. Until then much of the food and mineral a buck takes in is used to develop bone and muscle mass. Once the buck is fully mature excess food and mineral can be used to develop antler mass, and many hunters equate antler mass with a high score. A close look at any scoring chart will reveal that it is the number and length of tines that makes up the majority of inches needed for the rack to score high enough to enter the record books. The difference between a massive rack and a thin rack might only add 10 inches, which is 1/14 of a 140 class buck, not enough to really matter.

Milo Hanson’s world record whitetail has several tines with extremely long points and main beams, and with a good spread, but it is not massive. The length of the tines is what made it the new world record. Game officials aged the buck at 4. Obviously it had superior genetics, and it lived until it was 4 years old. It is conceivable that a 3 year old buck could make the archery record book but most trophy bucks are over 4 years of age. In many areas bucks don’t make it past their first year, and the chances of a 2 year old buck making the book are slim. If you want to see more trophy bucks you have to let the 1 to 3 year old bucks go, so they can grow. By letting the young bucks grow, and taking does, you not only keep the herd below carrying capacity, you increase the buck to doe ratio in favor of bucks. Eventually you will have more older-class bucks, which may translate into more trophy deer.

What does “doe management” mean? Among most wildlife professionals, doe management is synonymous with antlerless deer harvest. Antlerless harvest should be one of the most important components of a deer management plan. While most hunters and clubs realize the importance of managing bucks on their property, many fail to realize the importance of managing antlerless deer as well. Many things can be accomplished with an adequate antlerless harvest, all of which ultimately affect the buck population. A balanced sex ratio, shorter and earlier breeding season, increased reproduction and recruitment, and improved herd health are a few of the objectives that can be met with proper antlerless harvest.

Wildlife biologists often encounter concerns about antlerless harvest recommendations when assisting private landowners and hunting clubs with developing deer management plans. Hunters and landowners are often reluctant to harvest does because they are afraid they do not have enough deer. This misconception can often be dissuaded with sound information concerning general deer biology and the affects of antlerless harvest.

One population characteristic that is greatly affected by antlerless harvest is the adult sex ratio. Why is a balanced sex ratio important? If there are a disproportionate number of does in a deer herd, it is reasonable to assume all will not be bred in a timely manner. Many does will not breed and conceive on their first estrous cycle because there are not enough adult bucks in the population. These does may not be bred until their second, third or later estrus. The result is a long protracted breeding season. Also, these does will give birth later in the year than does that conceived during their first estrous cycle. These late summer, early fall born fawns typically encounter vegetation that is generally poorer in quality and quantity as it “hardens off” for winter. This causes most late born fawns to come out of their first winter in poorer condition than early born fawns. In addition, many late born bucks will have poorer antler development as 1 �; year olds than fawns born earlier in the year. With an extremely unbalanced sex ratio, some does may not breed at all.

Too many does also means the bucks will have to do very little searching for breeding opportunities, reducing a hunter’s chance of seeing a buck. When the number of does greatly exceeds the number of bucks, the bucks do not have to compete for the right to breed. This reduces the number of rubs and scrapes observed during the hunting season. Prolonged breeding seasons wear bucks down more than a shorter, more intense rut. Bucks in this situation enter late winter and early spring in much poorer physical condition. These bucks face a much tougher recovery period in the spring and summer, which can affect antler development and body weights the following year.

A given habitat can only support a certain number of deer in healthy condition. If the number of deer exceeds this level, habitat degradation and poorer herd health result. About one-third of a deer herd should be removed each year to maintain the population at a stable level. If the sex ratio is balanced, doe harvest should make up between 40 and 60 percent of the overall harvest to maintain this healthy balance. After only a few years of aggressive antlerless harvest, doe sightings may decline. Many hunters fear the decreased sightings are a result of drastically reduced deer numbers, when in fact; they have only educated the surviving does with the increased hunting pressure.

Fawn production and recruitment typically increase as a result of doe management. Does usually begin breeding at 1 �; years of age, and if healthy, will reproduce each year until they die. Fifty does in good condition produce more fawns than 100 unhealthy does. Additionally, fawns produced by healthy does tend to have higher survival rates than fawns born to does in poor condition.

When deciding to harvest does, hunters must be careful to avoid harvesting buck fawns or “button” bucks. This can easily be accomplished with just a little practice at identification. Hunters can learn to tell the difference between adult does and fawns by observing body shape and size. By waiting until several deer are present, a size comparison of the deer can be made. Additionally, adult does typically have longer and larger faces than fawns. The shape of the head on most buck fawns is flatter than a doe’s head and the developing pedicels or “buttons” are often visible upon close observation. Behavioral cues may help distinguish age classes of antlerless deer; fawns are usually more playful than adults and are generally not as cautious. Plus, fawns are often the first deer to arrive at a feeding area.

Managing antlerless deer harvest is just as important as managing buck harvest. As a matter of fact, a good deer management plan will always place equal importance on managing bucks and does. Often, in their attempt to meet harvest goals, hunters may forget that hunting does that have been pressured can be just as difficult as trying to harvest a mature buck. Don’t overlook this opportunity to enjoy a challenging and exciting hunt when trying to improve your deer herd.

PART 1

What Is Chronic Wasting Disease?

By now most of my readers know that I do a lot of research, and that the findings of my research are a large part of what I write about. A lot of my research is done in the field, observing animals and recording their actions. But, I also do background research, to find out what others have discovered about whatever subject I intend to write about.

Lately I have spend a lot of time on the Internet, looking for all the information I could find on Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD), Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopothies (TSE’s), prions (PrP) pronounced PREE-ons, and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD). I’ve looked at several articles, documents and research findings on the World Health Organization (WHO) website; the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) website and their Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS) website; the Health and Humans Services (HHS) website; the Center for Disease Control (CDC) website; the National Institute of Health (NIH) website; the United States Geological Survey (USGS) website; the Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance website; NOVA’s website; the Nature website, and several research institute and university websites.

As a result of all my background research on CWD I’ve got a file folder about an inch thick filled with information on CWD and other TSE’s. Although there is a lot of information about CWD the web, much of it is about hypothesis, theories, scientific findings, and future research into the possible cause of CWD. But, what I wanted to find out during my research was “What are TSE’s? What is a prion? And how is CWD spread?” And more importantly, “How infectious is CWD to deer and elk, and can humans become infected with CWD?”

What Are TSE’s?

TSE’s are a group of fatal, degenerative, neurological disease of animals and humans. The animal forms of TSE’s include scrapies in sheep, which has been known for several hundred years; Transmissible Mink Encephalopathy (TME) in mink; Feline Spongiform Encephalopathy (FSE) in cats, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) or Mad Cow Disease in cattle; and Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) in white-tailed deer, mule deer, black-tailed deer, and elk in North America. Mice and hamsters have also been infected with TSE’s in laboratory research.

The human forms of TSE’s include Kuru disease found in the Fore tribe of Papua, New Guinea with infection occurring from contact with diseased individuals, or after consuming the brain tissue of diseased individuals; Gerstmann-Straussler-Schenker syndrome (GSS) which occurs in persons with an apparent hereditary predisposition; Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI) which occurs in families, and appears sporadically; Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) which appears sporadically in about 1 in 1 million people, which has also caused infections in individuals who have received transplants or other products from previously diseased individuals, or who have come in contact with contaminated surgical instruments; and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakobs Disease (vCJD) which is believed to be have caused infections in humans who have eaten Mad Cow Disease infected beef.

Most scientists accept the theory that TSE’s are caused by little-understood abnormal protein called a prion (PrP), which is a form of protein found in the cells of the nervous system and other body tissues. However, some scientists question whether or not prions are the infective agent of TSE’s. There are also theories that TSE’s may be caused by bacteria known as Spiroplasma or by a virus or virino. There is also a hypothesis that TSE’s may occur as the result of a nutritional copper deficiency. Many scientists in the wildlife community dismiss these alternative ideas, and most of the research into the cause of CWD is in the area of prions.

Prion

s

Nobel Prize winning neurologist Dr. Stanley Pruisner first described an abnormal form of a prion that was resistant to enzymes that break down normal proteins. These abnormal, protease resistant prions have the ability to transform normal prions into an abnormal state. These abnormal prions accumulate in the in the brain, lymph nodes and tonsils. This accumulation of prions in the brain of infected animals and humans produces sponge-like holes in the brain, and eventually results in death.

Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakobs Disease

Variant CJD is similar to Creutzfeldt-Jakobs Disease (CJD) that it is found in humans. But, it varies from CJD in that it looks different under a microscope. And instead of just spontaneously occurring (like cancer does) it is believed to be infectious, occurring in humans who have eaten beef from Mad Cow Disease infected cattle. Variant CJD has occurred in people as young as 29 years old, whereas CJD rarely occurs in people under 65. Variant CJD also appears to have a longer duration of illness; 14 months as opposed to 4.5 months for CJD, and it may have as long as a 10 year incubation period. As of November 2002, 139 cases of vCJD in humans have been linked to Mad Cow Disease infected beef.

PART 2:

Where Did CWD Come From?

One of the problems in figuring out where CWD originally came from is that the exact cause of TSE’s, and the means of transmission of TSE’s from one animal or person to another are still relatively unknown. Other TSE’s appear to:

• occur sporadically (like cancer),
• be inherited,
• be passed from mother to offspring,
• be contracted by coming into contact with diseased tissue from infected animals or humans
• be contracted by coming into contaminated soil or other surfaces,
• be contracted by coming into contact with infected surgical equipment,
• or be contracted by being injected with material from a disease-infected animal or person.

It has been theorized that CWD has been around in wild deer and elk for years, but I know of no scientific evidence to support that theory. In light of the low number of occurrences of CWD in the wild, and the relatively higher number of occurrences in commercial deer and elk herds, and the fact that CWD was first reported in a research facility in Fort Collins, Colorado (where both sheep and deer were kept) it is likely that CWD, like Mad Cow Disease, is a result of deer coming into contact with either scrapie infected sheep or scrapie-contaminated soil or other surfaces (providing that CWD is caused by a prion, bacteria, virus or virino). Or CWD may be the result of a copper deficiency, or something entirely different.

Other TSE Theories

According to a paper on the USDA’s website dated November 2002, “The agent responsible for CWD (and other animal TSE’s, such as scrapie and bovine sponigorm encephalopathy) has not been completely characterized. There are three main theories on the nature of the agent that causes CWD:

• the agent is a prion, an abnormal form of a normal protein, known as a cellular prion protein, most commonly found in the central nervous system. The abnormal protein “infects” the host animal by promoting conversion of normal cellular prion proteins to the abnormal form.
• the agent is an unconventional virus;
• the agent is a virino, or “incomplete” virus composed of nucleic acid protected by host proteins.

The CWD agent is smaller than most viral particles and does not evoke any detectable immune response or inflammatory reaction in the host animal. Based on experience with other TSE agents, the CWD agent is assumed to be resistant to enzymes and chemicals that normally break down proteins, as well as resistant to heat and normal disinfection procedures.” If a virus causes CWD scientists may be able to produce a vaccine that would make both animals and humans immune to CWD.

Dr. Frank Bastian, a research professor of neuropathology at Tulane University in New Orleans questions the prion protein theory. He is quoted as saying, “A protein has never been known to be the causative agent for a disease.” Bastian feels that CWD may be caused by a bacterium known as a Spiroplasma. His research has shown that Spiroplasma is associated with CJD and scrapies. To make itself unnoticed by the immune system as it enters a host, Spiroplasma bacteria may cloak itself with host proteins such as prions.

Bastian believes that if bacteria cause CWD it may be spread through some type of vector, such as mites or other insects. Drs. Henryk Wisniewski, Sigurdur Sigurdarson, Richard Rubenstein, Richard Kascsak and Richard Carp found that their preliminary results presented the prospect that mites may serve as a vector for scrapie, and that mites may “represent a self-sustaining reservoir for scrapie-like agents.” If a bacteria cause CWD, and mites transmit it, it may be treatable with antibiotics.

British organic farmer Mark Purdey has presented the hypothesis that a nutritional copper deficiency may result in cows being susceptible to Mad Cow Disease. It has been found that the number of Mad Cow Diseases per 1000 head of cattle was not evenly or randomly distributed throughout the United Kingdom, but the highest concentrations occur in southern and eastern counties known to have widespread copper deficiencies in the soils and crops. Purdey believes that a copper deficiency (with a manganese replacement for copper in the prion protein), which was initially a result of repeated applications of high doses of phosmet (an organophosphate insecticide), and the use of manganese-rich chicken manure-based feed supplements, are the key to the origin of Mad Cow Disease in British cattle.

Dr. Murray McBride, of Cornell University, notes that Mad Cow Disease in Britain is also linked to the feeding of concentrated meat bone meal to dairy calves, and that one impact of high meat bone meal diets could induce copper deficiencies in ruminants such as cattle (and deer). Copper deficiencies have been found in cattle, moose, red deer, Sika deer, elk, muskoxen and goats. Confined or farmed elk and red deer are particularly susceptible to copper deficiencies, because they may have copper supplements available to them in their feed or mineral supplements. One reason why wild deer and elk may not exhibit TSE’s as frequently as cattle is because they appear to need less copper in their diets.

As I checked the web I found that there are at least 32 different hypothesis on the cause of Mad Cow Diseases/CWD. But, in spite of these other theories/hypothesis, the wildlife management community and other researchers may be ignoring the possibility that CWD may be caused by a bacteria, virus, or virino; or that a nutritional copper deficiency may result in animals being susceptible to CWD. Many people within the scientific community don’t support the bacteria, virus, virino or copper theories, because they have chosen to accept the prion theory. As a result of this, many of them are looking for answers on how CWD is transmitted, and ways to prevent or cure it based on their acceptance that prions are the causative agent of CWD.

In my dealings with the scientific community over the last 20 years I have found that many research scientists fail to look beyond their own area of expertise. And I’ve found this to be true when it comes to CWD. After corresponding with several of the scientists mentioned in this article by e-mail, I found that many of them did not know of the others work, and had not read their research, theories or hypothesis. In an effort to advance the research into the causative agent of CWD, and find possible ways to innoculate against, treat cure, or stop the spread of CWD, I have provided the top CWD scientists (many of who are only looking into prions) with the web sites and e-mail addresses of several non-prion scientists. And I have sent copies of some of the research abstracts of the non-prion scientists to the CWD scientists, in the hopes that they can work together. Fortunately, at least two of these scientists (who I consider to be very important), have agreed that they should keep an open mind when it comes to CWD.

PART 3

Is CWD Infectious?

It may turn out that CWD is not infectious, but on the off chance that it is, scientists, game managers, game farmers and hunters must treat it as if it is. Assuming the CWD is infectious lets take a look at some statistics and possible scenarios. Although CWD has only occurred at the rate of about 1 percent of the elk, and 1-13 percent of the deer in Colorado (where deer densities range from 2-5 deer per square mile) since 1981, no one knows how rapidly CWD may spread in areas where white-tailed deer numbers exceed 75+ deer per square mile (conservative estimate from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources). Wildlife managers are also more worried about the spread of CWD in the eastern states, because white-tailed deer appear to be more susceptible to CWD than either mule deer or elk. And no one is sure what long-term affect CWD will have on a white-tailed deer herd of over 1.5 million in Wisconsin or 1 million in Minnesota.

Since CWD was first discovered in Wisconsin in 2002, forty-one infected deer have been found in the state. And some of those deer have been found outside of the 370 square mile endemic area in the south-central portion of the state. CWD infected deer and elk are also showing up in areas that are far removed from the endemic area of northeastern Colorado/southeastern Wyoming/southwestern Nebraska. In Colorado they have occurred as far away as the western slope of the Rocky Mountains.

Management Considerations

There are several things that deer managers have to consider in the possible spread of CWD that many hunters may not have thought about. One thing to consider in the spread of CWD is that fact that deer often migrate from summer to winter ranges. Thomas Baumeister found that whitetail deer, that spend the summer in the upper range of Idaho’s Clearwater River, migrate an average of 24 miles to their winter ranges. Deer in northern states like Minnesota and Wisconsin typically travel from 10 to 20 miles from summer ranges to winter ranges. During these migrations thousands of deer may use the same trails, and hundreds of deer may use the same wintering areas. John Ozoga reports that the 360-acre deeryard in the northern portion of Wisconsin’s Menominee County is used as a wintering area by as many as 43,000 deer that normally occupy 1,400 square miles of habitat in the summer.

A second thing to consider is how young deer, particularly young bucks between 8 and 18 months of age, often disperse from their mother’s home range. During his study on the movement activities of white-tailed deer on the Desoto National Wildlife Refuge in Nebraska, Kurt VerCauteren found that dispersing yearling deer traveled as far as 12-15 miles from their former home range; some of the sub-adult does traveled as far as 40 to 50 miles. Chris Rosenberry and others found that 70 percent of the 6-18 month old bucks dispersed from their 3,300-acre study area; 50 percent dispersed an average of 3.7 miles, with some animals traveling as far as 36 miles. One yearling buck tagged in central Minnesota was shot 165 miles from where it was tagged; an adult doe was found 85 miles from where it was tagged.

A third thing to consider is how far bucks may travel during the rut. Dr. James Kroll is reported to have said that bucks in Alberta may occupy a 3,000 -acre core area, and they may travel circuits of 20-25 miles during the rut. We must also consider the fact that CWD may linger in contaminated soil for years. Scientists have found that scrapies can stay in the soil of infected areas for up to three years. This means that, even after the complete removal of infected animals, some areas (particularly wintering areas, and areas where deer are supplied with feed bait, or minerals) may cause new infections several years later.

We may have a sense of what can happen in white-tailed deer herds by what happened in the cattle herds in Great Britain. Mad Cow Disease was first observed in Great Britain in April, 1984, and was diagnosed in 1985. By June of 1990, there were 14,000 confirmed cases of Mad Cow Disease out of 10 million cattle. Since 1986 nearly 200,000 cases of Mad Cow Disease have been identified, and between 1992 and 1993, when the epidemic peaked, 1,000 cases a week were reported.

What deer managers have thought about (and what deer hunters need to think about) when they consider the possible effects of CWD on migrating, dispersing or rutting deer, is how easily CWD can be spread to other areas when deer migrate or disperse, and how many deer will contract CWD when deer come in contact with each other during migration and the rut. Another thing to think about is that the incubation period of CWD in whitetails is thought to be from 3-16 months. It may take up to a year or more from the time CWD is first reported in an area before wildlife managers can assess the impact of CWD on the animals in the surrounding areas.

If CWD is infectious how easily can it spread in the Midwest and East?

With the low population densities of mule deer and elk in the Western States, and if CWD is infectious, the CWD infective agents may not be passed through the same species often enough to become sufficiently strong to cross the species barrier or to other animals (such as natural predators and scavengers) that may consume infected deer or elk meat. However, in areas where deer population densities are high, and where high numbers of deer often feed at the same food source (especially in the winter), or where deer feeding or baiting is/has been allowed (as in Minnesota and Wisconsin), CWD infective agents may easily spread from one animal to another, and they may be quickly passed through several animals of the same species. This may eventually lead to CWD becoming strong enough in white-tailed deer to cross the species barrier to other animals, especially predators and scavengers.

PART 4

Responsible Deer Management

For several years I have been writing about what I call “Responsible Deer Management” and why and how it should be practiced by many states in the Upper Midwest. I’ve written about how deer management policies like “Maximum Sustainable Yield” which promotes the idea of “maintaining the breeding population” of the deer herd “at the highest level that the habitat and landowners will tolerate …” (MN Department of Natural Resources publication) often results in deer herds that are not socially balanced between sexes and age classes, and in deer populations that are at or above the carrying capacity of the habitat, which may lead to physical stress and malnutrition of the deer, and can result in the increased risk of the spread of disease in the herd and death to many of the animals. Although CWD is not prevalent in many of the states of the Upper Midwest, the fact that CWD has been found in Illinois, Minnesota and Wisconsin, and the size of the deer herds in those and neighboring states, makes it highly possible that CWD may spread throughout the Upper Midwest in future years.

The threat of infectious diseases spreading through deer and elk herds is one reason why some hunters and game managers have been asking for changes in wildlife management policies in some states, or areas of some states, in recent years. While some state game agencies have been managing their deer and elk herds for increased and/or maximum numbers of animals, some hunters and game managers in those states would like to see deer herds managed for more evenly balanced sex ratios, and for herds that are more in line with the carrying capacity of the habitat. The threat of the spread of CWD may now cause game managers in several states to reassess how they manage the deer and elk herds in their areas.

What Can Wildlife Managers Do?

Game managers in each state must assess the potential for the spread of CWD in their areas, and the impact of CWD on their deer and elk herds, based on the carrying capacity of the habitat, the number of animals per square mile, the impact on hunting, and the present and long term management goals for the deer and elk herds. Where deer or elk herds are below the carrying capacity of the habitat, or where there are low numbers of animals per square mile (as in some western states), the threat of CWD may be lower and the importance to management practices may be less of a factor, than in areas where herd numbers are at or above carrying capacity, where there are high numbers of animals per square mile, or where male to female ratios may be out of balance (as in some mid-western and eastern states).

Management Policies

In areas where herd numbers are below carrying capacity, or where the number of animals per square mile is low, the threat of the spread of CWD may be low, and there may be no need to do anything more than monitor the herds by routinely for evidence of CWD. In areas where deer herd numbers are above carrying capacity of the habitat, where the number of animals per square mile is high, or where the male to female ratio of the herd is out of balance, the threat of the spread of CWD may be high, and there may be the need to reduce herd numbers by increasing the number of antlerless permits to reduce yearly population increases, or, in cases where the number of animals per square mile is extremely high, there may be the need for special hunts or eradication programs to reduce herd numbers, before infected animals have a chance to spread CWD to a large portion of the herd.

Testing and Surveillance

Game managers in each state should conduct tests on deer harvested by hunters, and on any dead deer that are found, to determine if CWD is present in their herds, and determine the extent of the spread, and the possible number of infected deer in their herds. They should also implement a program to eliminate CWD from farmed elk and deer similar to the one proposed by the US Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS).

The provisions of this program proposed by APHIS will include fencing requirements, animal identification, herd inventory, surveillance of deaths in animals over 16 months of age, and herd certification with increased status (relaxing movement restrictions for animals from non-infected herds) based on the number of years of surveillance without the evidence of diseases including CWD. Additions to any herd will have to be from herds with the same or a higher degree of status. Animals that test positive for CWD will be identified by the use of approved tests performed by APHIS’ National Veterinary Services Laboratory (NVSL) or and NVSL approved laboratory.

Under this plan, CWD positive herds would be depopulated or quarantined. Animals from an infected herd that have come in contact with animals from a second herd would be removed from the second herd, or they would be euthanized. Animals from the both herds would then be quarantined and put under surveillance. If an animal in either herd tests positive, the entire herd would be treated as positive. All euthanized animals would also be tested for diseases. The USDA plans to implement this program by 2003.

Baiting, Feeding and Minerals

Because of the uncertainties about how CWD is spread, and how CWD may impact deer and elk herds, State wildlife agencies must be aggressive in how they manage their deer. Since the most likely means of transmission of CWD is from one animal to another through direct contact, or through contact with infected soil or other surfaces, wildlife managers and hunters should both be aware of the fact that the more deer come into contact with each other, the more likely it is that CWD will be spread. In the off chance that baiting and feeding of deer may lead to the spread of CWD, both of these practices should be banned. When it comes to the spread of infectious diseases, especially one as deadly as CWD, it is far better to be safe than to be sorry.

Although at least one animal nutritionist (who subscribes to the copper deficiency hypothesis) suggests that hunters do not need to stop supplying minerals to deer (because supplying minerals leads to healthier deer), the risk of the spread of CWD (where deer congregate at mineral sites) far outweighs the benefits of supplying mineral supplements to the deer. If hunters and wildlife admirers want to provide supplemental nutrition for deer, they should do it through habitat improvement and food plots, where the spread of CWD is less likely to occur.

What Can Commercial Game Farmers Do?

The USDA strongly urges deer and elk farmers to enroll in State CWD surveillance and control programs. Game farmers should notify the appropriate authorities of any sick or dead elk and deer in their herds. They should only purchase, trade or acquire deer and elk from farms that have been enrolled in State programs or are otherwise known not to have been exposed to CWD. As a result of the threat of CWD, the numbers of sales, and the prices, of live deer and elk, has dropped significantly in the last year. But, once the government surveillance and testing programs are in place; and deer and elk herds are certified free of CWD, the restrictions on the sale of deer and elk should be relaxed, and prices should rise.

Because copper deficiencies in the diet of ruminants may result in deer and elk being more susceptible to CWD, game farmers may want to make sure their animals receive sufficient amounts of copper in their diets. Game farmers may also want to consider double-fencing their enclosures, to keep animals from outside the enclosures from coming into direct contact with and infecting animals inside the enclosures.

PART 5

Can Humans Become Infected With CWD?

Reports on the infectious nature of CWD in the media have been carefully worded to state that, “there is no evidence that CWD can be transmitted to humans.” However, this statement may be misleading, or misunderstood. A November 4, 2002, article on the Department of Health and Human Services’ website states, “Scientists do not know yet whether deer or elk with CWD might also transmit some form of TSE disease to people who eat or have close contact with them. With CWD beginning to spread over a wider geographical area in the United States, however, answering this question is of critical public health importance.”
An article on the United States Department of Agriculture’s website states, ” To date, there is no evidence that CWD has been transmitted or can be transmitted to humans under natural conditions. However, there is not yet strong evidence that such transmissions might occasionally cause diseases in humans, additional epidemiological and laboratory studies could be helpful. Such studies include molecular characterization and strain typing of the agents causing CWD in deer and elk and CJD in potentially exposed patients. Ongoing national surveillance for CJD and other neurological cases will remain important to assess the risk, if any, of CWD transmission to humans.” It may be several years before scientists are able to detect CWD in humans, because it is believed that it may take 10 or more years for CWD to manifest itself in humans.

Species Barriers

TSE diseases may not cause infections in animals of different species because of what scientists refer to as “species barriers.” Depending on how wide or strong this barrier is between different species, diseases like TSE’s may not cross the barrier between non-related species. In other words, it maybe difficult for a human to become infected with some new or existing form of TSE after they have eaten CWD infected meat. However, there is a hypothesis that the more times a TSE in transmitted through different animals of the same species, the stronger it becomes; and the stronger the TSE becomes, the more likely it is to cross the species barrier.

This may explain how the TSE known as scrapies in sheep resulted in the TSE known as Mad Cow Disease in cattle. Prior to the discovery of Mad Cow Disease in Great Britain, meat by-products of poultry, sheep and cattle were often used to feed livestock. If scrapies infected sheep by-products were fed to cattle, and the meat by- products from those cattle were fed to other cattle, the scrapies TSE may have become strong enough to cause Mad Cow Disease in the cattle. The Mad Cow Disease in the cattle may then have become strong enough to cause variant Creutzfeldt-Jakobs disease in humans who ate diseased beef.

This same sequence of events may have resulted in sheep scrapies causing CWD in mule deer or elk in the research facility in Colorado where CWD was first described. Since it is not likely that the mule deer in the research facility were fed scrapies infected meat by-products, it can be assumed that the mule deer were either infected after coming into close physical contact with infected sheep; or they may have eaten scrapies infected soil or licked some other surface (such as feed, feed bunks, fencing or buildings) which resulted in the infection of the deer. Because the species barrier between mule deer and elk is not very wide, diseased mule deer may then have infected elk. Or the elk may have been infected in some way by the sheep.

Although there is currently no evidence that CWD can be transmitted to humans, it was also previously believed that Mad Cow Disease could not be transmitted to humans. When talking about Mad Cow Disease in 1995, Steven Dorell, of the United Kingdom national media stated, “No conceivable risk.” John Major, then of the British Parliament, stated, “No conceivable risk, beef is safe … (in any meaningful sense of the word).” Despite these claims the human form of a TSE (referred to as variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease) has been strongly linked to exposure of the TSE agent in Mad Cow Disease infected beef. Between October 1996 and November 2002, 129 cases of vCJD have been reported in the United Kingdom, six cases in France, and one case each in Ireland, Italy, Canada and the United States.

Here is what the deer are doing in May. Plus, an overview of the goals of deer management by the states and individuals.

During May buck and doe whitetails may begin to move to their summer home ranges. The does may begin to look for fawning areas. Turkey hunting may still be going on in some areas. While you are scouting and hunting turkeys you can also be deer scouting, figuring out where the deer are at so you can watch them in the fall, when you can determine if there are any big bucks around.

Herd Health and Social Structure

More and more hunters are interested in hunting for trophy animals. But, because game managers are often interested in providing a large, healthy deer herd, not necessarily a balanced herd with trophy animals, these hunters are taking it upon themselves to try to increase their chances of seeing a trophy by practicing some type of deer management (sometimes with the emphasis on growing trophies) and improving the habitat. Hunters who are only interested in helping the animals grow bigger racks by providing food plots, minerals and limiting their hunting to larger racked animals often unwittingly improve the quality of the entire herd. Not only will the bucks use the food and minerals, so will the does and fawns. If the hunter then passes up smaller animals he gives them a chance to mature, develop fully and contribute to the gene pool.

Management Practices

There is no question that deer herds must be managed. Increasing human populations, urban sprawl and changing land practices have led to less available deer habitat, while deer herds have continued to increase, which has led to an overpopulation of deer in many areas. This has compelled wildlife managers to issue abundant doe permits each year in order to keep the deer herds within the carrying capacity of the available habitat.

The deer management practices of many wildlife agencies revolve around the need to balance the deer herds in relation to the habitat while still trying to keep deer populations high enough for hunting, with hunting as the primary method of deer reduction. The current practice of keeping deer populations high enough that they can be hunted, and the past management practice of bucks only hunting, combined with the belief by many hunters that they should only shoot bucks if they want to keep deer numbers high, is one reason why there are too many deer in some areas, particularly does.

It is usually too many does (as in Minnesota and Wisconsin), not too many bucks in a deer herd, that prompts game managers to issue numerous doe permits in the hopes that enough deer will be removed to keep their numbers at acceptable levels. Eventually this becomes a vicious cycle and both the deer and the habitat suffer. The effects of this cycle generally result in low buck:doe ratios and fewer numbers of dominant breeding bucks, which leads to breeding periods that are later and longer than they should be, resulting in poor spring survival rates of fawns.

To add to the problem of too many deer, but not enough bucks, the interest in trophy hunting for white-tailed deer has skyrocketed in the past few years. This interest in high scoring whitetail racks by numerous hunters puts added pressure on the already depleted number of large antlered bucks, and further reduces the number of available older breeding bucks. Fewer numbers of bucks, particularly older dominants, result in fewer contacts between the does and the priming pheromones deposited by bucks at rubs and scrapes. These priming pheromones are thought to cause the does to come into estrus and help synchronize the rut behavior between the does and the bucks. When these pheromones are absent the does may come into estrous from as early as mid-October to as late as January. Studies have shown that whitetail sperm production extends from mid-August through March. Sperm counts increased through October, peaked in November, and dropped almost in half by mid-December. Lower sperm counts in December could result in lower conception rates of the does at that time.

Chronic Wasting Disease

We can no longer talk about deer management without thinking about how Chromic Wasting Disease (CWD) may impact our deer herds and deer hunting. The threat of infectious diseases spreading through deer and elk herds is one reason why some hunters and game managers have been asking for changes in wildlife management policies in some states, or areas of some states, in recent years. While some state game agencies have been managing their deer and elk herds for increased and/or maximum numbers of animals, some hunters and game managers in those states would like to see deer herds managed for more evenly balanced sex ratios, and for herds that are more in line with the carrying capacity of the habitat. The threat of the spread of CWD may now cause game managers in several states to reassess how they manage the deer and elk herds in their areas.

This article contains excerpts from the Deer Manager’s Calendar ($24.95 plus $5.00 S&H), and the Whitetail Addict’s Manual ($19.95 plus $5.00 S&H) by T.R. Michels.

It is June and whitetail bucks and does should be on their summer home ranges, and the does should be fawning this month. It’s time to start working on habitat improvement: fertilizing, mowing, spraying, and clearing trails and paths for the hunting season.

Deer Management: Antler Growth

If you want to see more big-racked bucks in your area the first thing you have to do is use a little restraint. You need to let the young bucks go, so they can grow. I often hear hunters complain that they don’t see anything but small racked bucks in their area. These hunters often wait patiently through the season for a big racked buck to appear. Then, instead of going home empty handed they end up taking a small racked buck. If this pattern continues year after year those hunters will continue to see nothing but young, small-racked bucks, because the young deer never live long enough to grow big racks.

Age and Antler Size

Deer experts used to believe it took 4 �; years for a whitetail buck to develop a trophy rack. It is now believed that a whitetail doesn’t achieve full body size until it is about 7 �; years old. Until then much of the food and mineral a buck takes in is used to develop bone and muscle mass. Once the buck is fully mature, excess food and mineral can be used to develop antler mass, and many hunters equate antler mass with a high score.

A close look at any scoring chart will reveal that it is the number and length of tines that makes up the majority of inches needed for the rack to score high enough to enter the record books. The difference between a massive rack and a thin rack might only add 10 inches, which is 1/14 of a 140 class buck, not enough to really matter.

Milo Hanson’s World record whitetail has several tines with extremely long points, and it has long main beams, with a good spread, but it is not massive. The length of the tines is what made it the new World Record whitetail. Game officials aged the buck at 4 �; years old. Obviously it had superior genetics, and it lived until it was 4 �; years old. It is conceivable that a 3 �; year old buck could make the archery record book, but most trophy bucks are over 4 �; years of age.

In many areas bucks don’t make it past their first year, and the chances of a 2 �; year old buck making the book are slim. If you want to see more large racked bucks you have to let the 1 �; to 3 �; year old bucks go, so they can grow.

By letting the young bucks grow, and taking does, you not only keep the herd below carrying capacity, you increase the buck to doe ratio in favor of bucks. Eventually you will have more older-class bucks, which may translate into more larger racked deer.

That being said, scientific studies have shown that antler point restrictions, whereby hunters judge the approximate age of a buck by the number of points it carries, may actually lead to smaller racked bucks in the future. In other words, antler point restrictions alone, used to increase the size of the racks on the bucks in the herd, may not work.

What the study showed is that hunters may not be able to judge the age of the bucks by the size of its rack, and that some yearling bucks with larger than normal racks for the area may be harvested by hunters (who may believe they are shooting older-class bucks. When high numbers (over 50%) of the large-racked yearling bucks are harvested it leaves only the smaller-racked bucks to survive.

These smaller racked bucks may be genetically programmed to grow small racks, and pass on that trait to their offspring, resulting in the yearling bucks producing smaller than normal racks (for the herd, or as opposed to previously harvested bucks) at 2 or 3 years of age. They may also pass on their small-rack genetics to their future offspring, resulting in smaller racked bucks in future years.

This study suggests that hunter should learn to distinguish yearling bucks (from older-class bucks) by their smaller bodies, less developed muscles and rounder faces; and pass up all yearling bucks, no matter how big their racks are. Then, once the bucks reach 3-4 years of age, you can cull the bucks with smaller racks.

By July most of the does should be done fawning. The fawns should be growing and following their mothers some of the time. The bucks are growing racks, and all the deer should be feeding on preferred foods.

Planning Ahead

Any type of deer management should take into account several different factors; herd size, buck to doe ratio, age structure of the herd, fawning rates, type of habitat, available food sources, seasonal use of the habitat; and hunting success by age, and sex. One of the first steps in deer management should be to determine the size and makeup of the herd. A fairly accurate count of all the animals should be taken to determine buck:doe ratio and fawning rates; to determine if the herd is in balance with the available habitat, so that overuse of the habitat by the deer does not occur; which could resulting in habitat destruction, poor nutrition, starvation, disease, stress, and poor reproduction and growth of the deer herd. You can start to produce a socially balanced deer herd: 1. By keeping the herd at or below the carrying capacity of the habitat. 2. By balancing the buck to doe ratio of the herd. 3. By ensuring that there are adequate numbers of both sexes and all ages classes of deer in the herd, so that maximum breeding occurs at the appropriate time of the year.

You can find out how many deer there are in the area by having several different people counting deer in different areas, at the same times, on several different days or nights. Be sure to determine the sex of all adult deer, and count all of the fawns. While you may miss some deer using this method, if you use the highest number of deer seen during any one time, you will have a fairly good estimation of the size and makeup of the deer herd n your area. You can also ask your local game managers how many deer they believe there are per square mile in your area. The game manager should also be able to tell you the carrying capacity of the land.

In order for any deer management program to work hunters and game managers must realize that:

• The habitat can carry only so many deer, it makes no difference whether they are bucks or does. Once the number of deer exceeds the carrying capacity of the habitat there will eventually be habitat destruction, which can lead to disease, stress, and starvation of the deer. Or the deer, particularly younger bucks, will leave to find more suitable habitat, making them susceptible to injury and death by natural causes, hunting, or vehicle collisions.
• Once the carrying capacity of the habitat has been determined, the total number of deer should be kept below that capacity, so that there is adequate nutrition in winter, and in case of forage and habitat loss due to natural causes.
• Because the habitat can carry only so many deer, and one of the goals of deer management should be to ensure that there are appropriate numbers of both sexes, and all age classes of deer, one of the first objectives should be to balance the buck to doe ratio of the herd. The best way to increase the buck:doe ratio is to remove some of the does. In order to keep the buck:doe ratio stabilized an appropriate number of both bucks and does should be removed every year.
• To increase the average age of the bucks in the herd younger bucks must be allowed to reach four to five years of age, which is when they should be the dominant breeding bucks. It may be four to five years before there are significant numbers of older bucks available to achieve all the breeding at the proper time.
• The oldest and youngest deer, and bucks that are exhausted from the rut, are usually the weakest and the first to die. In order to keep weaker deer alive when they are under stress their health needs must be provided for. With the threat of infectious diseases, the best way to provide for the nutritional needs of the deer is through habitat improvement, and food plots; not through supplemental feeding.
• Increased deer attraction to a particular property, improved survival and fawning rates, and increased body and antler size can be achieved by providing adequate cover and water, planting deer forage and browse, and providing year round minerals. Supplemental feed can be supplied (only where CWD and TB are not a concern) in the winter and early spring when deer are stressed.

This article is adapted from The Deer Manager’s Manual, and the Deer Addict’s Manual, Volume 1.

Through research we know that white-tailed deer use different sounds: to keep in contact with each other (contact); to express alarm and distress (alarm/distress); to solicit attention from and respond to does (maternal) and fawns(neonatal); to express dominance/threaten other deer (agonistic). Deer also make sounds associated with courtship and breeding behavior (mating).

Alarm/Distress

The Snort is an intense blowing sound produced by expelling air through the nostrils, best described as a loud whew, or whew-whew-whew. Deer that see or hear a disturbance but cannot smell the source often use repeated low snorts, foot stomping, head bobbing and tail flipping, possibly to alert other deer of danger. The head bobbing and foot stomping may be used to startle a predator into moving and giving itself away. A deer’s sense of smell is thought to be independent of conscious discrimination, and deer that smell danger usually snort, then flee while flagging the tail.

The Bawl is an intense call used by deer in distress, often when caught by a predator or trapped. The sound is a loud baa. Does often respond to the call by running in, presumably out of maternal instinct.

Agonistic

The Grunt is used in three different forms to express dominance or to threaten another deer. It is also used to locate other deer, which causes them to respond by coming to the call, or by announcing their location by returning the call.
The Low Grunt is used by both does and bucks throughout the year. The call sounds like a soft guttural err. This is the first level of aggression, used to displace lesser deer. If the lesser animal does not move it is usually rushed and may be kicked with a forefoot by the dominant.

The Grunt-Snort is used most often by bucks during the breeding season in more intense situations. One or more snorts are added to a grunt; err-whew.

The Grunt-Snort-Wheeze is the most intense form of an aggressive call. It consists of a grunt-snort followed by a drawn out wheeze through pinched nostrils. The wheeze may sound like a whistle.

Social Contact

The Social Contact Grunt is often performed by members of a doe group when they become separated, and it may help deer stay in contact when they can’t see each other. In one study only females performed this call. This call is longer than the low grunt and can be heard by humans as far as 100 meters. It may attract bucks during the breeding season.

Maternal/Neonatal

The Maternal Grunt is a low, quick grunt performed at short intervals when a doe approaches the fawn’s bedding site. The fawn generally leaves its bed and joins the doe. It is audible to humans for only a few meters.

The Mew is used by the fawn when it wants attention, or is given in response to the maternal grunt of the doe.

The Bleat is the fawn version of the bawl, it is given by the fawn when it wants urgent attention, is hungry, or wants care, and may be heard as far as 100 meters by humans.

The Nursing Whine occurs while the fawn is nursing or searching for a nipple.

Mating

The Tending Grunt is a low grunt used by bucks when pursuing an estrus doe. It may consist of a single short grunt, several grunts or a long drawn out grunt. It is probably given to alert other deer of the presence of a dominant in order to keep them away; and to attract does.

The Tending Click is a clicking sound bucks may make when looking for of following estrus does. It sounds like someone slowly running a fingernail across the teeth of a comb. It appears to be a slow, drawn-out version of the Tending Grunt.

The Flehmen Sniff is a low sound produced during the lip curl, when air is inhaled to bring urine in contact with the nose or vomeronasal organ, allowing the buck to determine the breeding readiness of the doe.

Although several call manufacturers, writers and speakers claim there is an Estrus Doe Bleat or Doe Mating Call, no call of this nature was noted in the scientific studies I have read. These people may be referring to the social grunt. Because security is essential to doe survival, does probably do not use a loud call that might alert nearby predators.

The statistics on whitetail vocalizations are based on studies by Dr. Larry Marchinton. The duration of the calls is approximate. The tone of the call usually depends on the deer. Larger deer, especially bucks, tend to make deeper sounds.

Deer Vocalizations